Chapter 6: Commonalities and Variations

World history is like a story. All of humans emerged in a similar way because of migration, food collection, and agriculture when the movement of people spread.

Continental Comparisons
(Similarities and Differences Among the 3 Major Continents - Eurasia, Africa, and Americas)

• The world's human population was unevenly distributed. Eurasia was home to the whopping 85% of people.
• Americas did not have access to animals for domestication.
• Americas writing was limited, unlike Africa.
• Africa and Americas had smaller civilization.
• Africa and Eurasia interacted because geography placed them together.

I think it's reasonable that historians give so much attention to Eurasia because it was home to so many. However, it makes me wonder why it turned out that Eurasia had the most people in the first place. I also think it is ironic that the Americas are known for its industrialization and modernization, yet it took a little longer to advance than other continents.

Civilizations of Africa

• Africa's diverse climate and large size caused variation among its civilizations. Some areas were dry and others fertile. 
• Nubian civilization in Nile Valley, Egypt took place, and they traded, borrowed, and fought with Europe. Here there was more representation of women in monarch, variety of skilled workers, iron smelting, industrial, rural rainfall. Also long-distance trading, known for riches (iron), Egyptian language emerges. Continuation of old African/Nubian civilization. Declined due to deforestation. Less resources available. Conquered by the state Axum.
• Axum was a kingdom. It featured highly productive plow-based agriculture, Red Sea commerce trade, famous structures and buildings, and the root of Christianity. It declined due to environment issues.
• The Niger River Valley civilization did not have a system of centralized state authority. Iron smithing and other specializations were big and formed caste, food production, and West African commerce because of Niger River.

When I read that King Ezana's kingdom featured coins with gods inscribed in them, and later the Christian cross, it made me reflect on our own American currency. I think it is interesting how universal Christianity was in that era as well as our own. I am a Christian myself, but I have always wondered why it is such a universal religion.

Civilizations of Mesoamerica

(The Americas)

• Mesoamerica and the Andes were the two major centers of civilizations in the Americas. They were separated from Eurasia, they had rugged mountain terrain leading to diversity, and they lacked animals for domestication but still advanced.
• Aztec and Inca empires had the most people. The Americas shared a common agricultural culture.
• The Mayans were known for famous buildings mathematicians, writing system, engineering landscape (forming elite class), fragmented political system (with frequent warfare). It collapsed due to politics, economics, drought and environment, and deforestation.
• Teotihuacan was America's largest urban complex with avenues, buildings, and art. It collapsed, but had military and political activity over other civilizations.

One point I found interesting was that the Americas was still able to advance even though they did not have iron tools or animals for domestication. The Revolution of Agriculture had already taken place, and it had not yet reached the Americas because they did not have access to these animals for domestication.

Civilizations of the Andes

• The Andes had rich marine life. It was characterized by religious movements, and fluctuating states and empires.
• Chain de Hauntar was a religious movement. It had distinct buildings and artwork. Shamans and priests and religious spread across Peru.
• The Moche people had a complex irrigation system, was governed by warrior-priests who were wealthy and elite. The Moche had gods and goddesses. It passed into history because of aggressive neighbors and the environment.
• The Wari and Tiwanku gave political integration and "commonality" for the region of the Andes. They made colonies as well as had agriculture and irrigation. There was little conflict and remained isolated and distinct of one another. Both collapsed and were abandoned.

One thing in general that is surprising to me is how Strayer illustrates that these civilizations "passed into history" due to factors such as a territorial aggressiveness and economic factors. They collapse and become abandoned, and it just shows how humans run the world. It causes me to reflect on how our society is still standing because of the advancement, wealth, power, and control that we have. But it still seems, more than ever, that this is the era of time where we have done the most environmental damage, yet our civilizations still stand.

Alternatives to Civilization

• It is important to consider other civilizations.
• Bantu-Africa emerged uniquely through expansion, slowly. Bantu people interacted with gathering and hunting peoples, so agriculture created a more productive economy. They made adaptations to weather, developed gender systems, lineage principles, and religion characterized by trance states. 
• Village-based agriculture made people change in response to their environments.  Maize, corn, and squash were particular produce leading to population growth and a dependence on agriculture.
• The Chaco people included skilled astronomers. Their region was a center for production and commerce.
• By 2000 B.C.E. many people domesticated plants. These people created societies unique by large columns of earthen mounds, so they became known as Mound Builders. Hopewell people had striking burial mounds and artwork through the earth.
• Pacific Oceania people made communities without cities. Settlers made a negative environmental impact. The islands increased in populations and social complexity. Politically, Oceanic societies were organized into chiefdoms, women were considered dirty, and religious life was characterized by the prevention of evil and the belief in spirits.

It is fascinating to read how people adapt to their environment and invent innovative ways to fit in to the survival of society. In this way, I think cultures develop. All cultures are systems designed for a particular group of people to best adapt to their universal human need for survival. It is learned, though intuition is biological, and it shapes our everyday life. We learn from others, and others learn from us. It also goes to show the particular intelligence of the human being itself. In some ways, I feel that we can learn about ourselves through learning history.